Vegetative and Reproductive Structures of Vines and their Developments

      Buds

A bud contains growing points that develop in the leaf axil, the area just above the point of connection between the petiole and shoot. The single bud that develops in this area is described in botanical terms as an axillary bud. It is important to understand that a bud develops in every leaf axil on grapevines, including the inconspicuous basal bracts (scale-like leaves). In viticulture terminology, we describe the two buds associated with a leaf –- the lateral bud and the dormant bud (or latent bud). The lateral bud is the true axillary bud of the foliage leaf, and the dormant bud forms in the bract axil of the lateral bud. Because of their developmental association, the two buds are situated side-by-side in the main leaf axil.

A cross section of a dormant bud. The three buds within the compound bud can be seen.

Although the dormant bud (sometimes called an “eye”) looks like a simple structure, it is actually a compound bud consisting of three growing points, sometimes referred to as the primary, secondary, and tertiary buds within one bud. The distinction between secondary and tertiary buds is sometimes difficult to make when observing the bud visually and is often of little importance, so it is common to refer to both of the smaller buds as secondary buds. These three buds are packaged together within a group of external protective bud scales within the compound bud. As the bud develops, it follows the pattern of nomenclature as the buds on the shoot: the primary growing point is the axillary bud of the lateral bud; the secondary and tertiary growing points are the axillary buds of the first two bracts of the primary growing point.

The dormant bud is the focal point during dormant pruning, since it contains cluster primordia (the fruit-producing potential for the next season). It is called dormant to reflect the fact that it does not normally grow out in the same season in which it develops.

The dormant bud initiates the year prior to its growth as a shoot. During that prior season, it undergoes considerable development. The three growing points of the compound bud each produce a rudimentary shoot that ultimately will contain primordia (organs in their earliest stages of development) of the same basic components that comprise the current season’s fully grown shoot: leaves, tendrils, and in some cases flower clusters. The primary bud develops first; therefore it is the largest and most fully developed by the time the bud goes dormant. If it is produced under favorable environmental and growing conditions, it will contain flower cluster primordia before the end of the growing season. The flower cluster primordia thus represent the fruiting potential of the bud in the following season. Reflecting the sequence of development, the secondary and tertiary buds are progressively smaller and less developed. They generally will be less fruitful (have fewer and smaller clusters) than the primary bud. Bud fruitfulness (potential to produce fruit) is a function of the variety, environmental conditions, and vineyard production practices. Dormant buds that develop under unfavorable conditions (shade of a dense canopy, poor nutrition, etc.) produce fewer flower cluster primordia for the following season.

In most cases, only the primary bud grows, producing the primary shoot in the following season. The secondary bud can be thought of as a “backup system” for the vine; normally, it grows only when the primary bud or young shoot has been damaged, oftentimes from freeze or frost in spring. However, under some conditions such as severe pruning, destruction of part of the vine, or boron deficiency, it is possible for two or all three of the buds to produce shoots in spring (Winkler et al., 1974). Tertiary buds provide additional backup if both the primary and secondary buds are damaged, but they usually have no flower clusters and thus no fruit. If only the primary shoot grows, the secondary and tertiary buds remain alive, but dormant at the base of the shoot.

The lateral bud will grow in the current season, but growth may either cease soon after formation of the basal bract or it can continue, producing a lateral shoot (summer lateral) of variable length. Regardless of the extent of lateral bud development, a compound bud develops in the basal bract, forming the dormant bud. Long lateral shoots sometimes produce flower clusters and fruit, which is known as "second crop." However, because these develop later in the season than fruit on the primary shoot, “second crop” fruit does not fully mature in many areas of the country. If a lateral bud does not grow in the current season, it will die.

Flowers and Fruit

A fruitful shoot will usually produce one to three flower clusters (inflorescences) depending on variety. Flower clusters develop opposite the leaves typically at the third to sixth nodes from the base of the shoot, depending on the variety. If three flower clusters develop, two develop on adjacent nodes, the next node has none, and the following node has the third flower cluster. The number of flower clusters on a shoot is dependent upon the grape variety and the conditions of the previous season under which the dormant bud (that produced the primary shoot) developed. A cluster may contain several to many hundreds of individual flowers, depending on variety.

Grape buds and flowers. A compound bud with primary, secondary, and tertiary buds (L), and flowers from formation to cap fall to pre-fertilization.

         




 The grape flower does not have conspicuous petals, instead, the petals are fused into a green structure termed the calyptras, but commonly referred to as the cap. The cap encloses the reproductive organs and other tissues within the flower. A flower consists of a single pistil (female organ) and five stamens, each tipped with an anther (male organ). The pistil is roughly conical in shape, with the base disproportionately larger than the top, and the tip (called the stigma) slightly flared. The broad base of the pistil is the ovary, and it consists of two internal compartments, each having two ovules containing an embryo sac with a single egg. The anthers produce many yellow pollen grains, which contain the sperm. Wild grapevines, rootstocks (and a few cultivated varieties such as St. Pepin) have eitherpistillate (female) or staminate male flowers -- that is, the entire vine is either male or female. Vines with female, pistillate flowers need nearby vines with staminate or perfect flowers to produce fruit. The majority of commercial grapevine varieties have perfect flowers, that is, both male and female components.

                                                                             An individual grape flower is shown with floral parts labeled.

The period of time during which flowers are open (the calyptra has fallen) is called bloom (also flowering or anthesis), and can last from 1 to 3 weeks depending on weather conditions. Viticulturists variously refer to full bloom as the stage at which either approximately 50% or two-thirds of the caps have loosened or fallen from the flowers. Bloom typically occurs between 50 and 80 days after budburst.

Stages of Bloom

When the individual flowers on a grape inflorescence open, it looks different than the bloom of most flowers. The cap separates from the base of the flower, becomes dislodged and usually falls off, exposing the pistil and anthers. The anthers may release their pollen either before or after cap fall. Pollen grains randomly land upon the stigma of the pistil, allowing pollination. Multiple pollen grains can germinate, each growing a pollen tube down the pistil to the ovary and entering an ovule, where a sperm unites with an egg to form an embryo. The successful union is termed fertilization, and the subsequent growth of berries is called "fruit set." The berry develops from the tissues of the pistil, primarily the ovary. The ovule together with its enclosed embryo develops into the seed.

A grape inflorescence with nearly 100% cap fall.

Because there are four ovules per flower, there is a maximum potential of four seeds per berry. Unfavorable environmental conditions during bloom such as cool, rainy weather can reduce fruit set (number of berries) and seeds per berry, thereby affecting berry size. Berry size is related to the number of seeds within the berry, and very few seeds leads to smaller berries. However, berry size can also be influenced by environmental conditions, management practices, and water management. Some immature berries may be retained by a cluster without completing their normal growth and development, a phenomenon known as “ coulure” or “hens and chicks” .

Yeast & Fermentation

                                                     In the seventeenth century, a Dutch tradesman named Antoni van Leeuwenhoek developed high-quality lenses and was able to observe yeast for the first time. In his spare time Leeuwenhoek used his lenses to observe and record detailed drawings of everything he could, including very tiny objects, like protozoa,bacteria, and yeast. Leeuwenhoek discovered that yeast consist of globules floating in a fluid, but he thought they were merely the starchy particles of the grain from which the wort (liquid obtained from the brewing of whiskey and beer) was made (Huxley 1894). Later, in 1755, yeast were defined in the Dictionary of the English Language by Samuel Johnson as "the ferment put into drink to make it work; and into bread to lighten and swell it." At the time, nobody believed that yeast were alive; they were seen as just organic chemical agents required for fermentation.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, chemists worked hard to decipher the nature of alcoholic fermentation through analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature. In 1789, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier was working on basic theoretical questions about the transformations of substances. In his quest, he decided to use sugars for his experiments, and he gained new knowledge about their structures and chemical reactions. Using quantitative studies, he learned that sugars are composed of a mixture of hydrogen, charcoal (carbon), and oxygen.

                                                                 Lavoisier was also interested in analyzing the mechanism by which sugarcane is transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide during fermentation. He estimated the proportions of sugars and water at the beginning of the chemical reaction and compared them with the alcohol and carbon dioxide proportions obtained at the end. For the alcoholic reaction to proceed, he also added yeast paste (or "ferment," as it was called). He concluded that sugars were broken down through two chemical pathways: Two-thirds of the sugars were reduced to form alcohol, and the other third were oxidized to form carbon dioxide (the source of the bubbles observedduring fermentation). Lavoisier predicted (according to his famous conservation-of-mass principle) that if it was possible to combine alcohol and carbon dioxide in the right proportions, the resulting product would be sugar. The experiment provided a clear insight into the basic chemical reactions needed to produce alcohol. However, there was one problem: Where did the yeast fit into the reaction? The chemists hypothesized that the yeast initiated alcoholic fermentation but did not take part in the reaction. They assumed that the yeast remained unchanged throughout the chemical reactions.

Yeast Are Microorganisms

                                                             In 1815 the French chemist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac made some interesting observations about yeast. Gay-Lussac was experimenting with a method developed by Nicolas Appert, a confectioner and cooker, for preventing perishable food from rotting. Gay-Lussac was interested in using the method to maintain grape juice wort in an unfermented state for an indefinite time. The method consisted of boiling the wort in a vessel, and then tightly closing the vessel containing the boiling fluid to avoid exposure to air. With this method, the grape juice remained unfermented for long periods as long as the vessel was kept closed. However, if yeast (ferment) was introduced into the wort after the liquid cooled, the wort would begin to ferment. There was now no doubt that yeast were indispensable for alcoholic fermentation. But what role did they play in the process?

                                                       When more powerful microscopes were developed, the nature of yeast came to be better understood. In 1835, Charles Cagniard de la Tour, a French inventor, observed that during alcoholic fermentation yeast multiply by gemmation (budding). His observation confirmed that yeast are one-celled organisms and suggested that they were closely related to the fermentation process. Around the same time, Theodor Schwann, Friedrich Kützing, and Christian Erxleben independently concluded that "the globular, or oval, corpuscles which float so thickly in the yeast [ferment] as to make it muddy" were living organisms (Barnett 1998). The recognition that yeast are living entities and not merely organic residues changed the prevailing idea that fermentation was only a chemical process. This discovery paved the way to understand the role of yeast in fermentation.

Pasteur Demonstrates the Role of Yeast in Fermentation

 

Our modern understanding of the fermentation process comes from the work of the French chemist Louis Pasteur.

                                                                  Pasteur was the first to demonstrate experimentally that fermented beverages result from the action of living yeast transforming glucose into ethanol. Moreover, Pasteur demonstrated that only microorganisms are capable of converting sugars into alcohol from grape juice, and that the process occurs in the absence of oxygen. He concluded that fermentation is a vital process, and he defined it as respiration without air (Barnett 2000; Pasteur 1876).

Pasteur performed careful experiments and demonstrated that the end products of alcoholic fermentation are more numerous and complex than those initially reported by Lavoisier. Along with alcohol and carbon dioxide, there were also significant amounts of glycerin, succinic acid, and amylic alcohol (some of these molecules were optical isomers — a characteristic of many important molecules required for life). These observations suggested that fermentation was an organic process. To confirm his hypothesis, Pasteur reproduced fermentation under experimental conditions, and his results showed that fermentation and yeast multiplication occur in parallel. He realized that fermentation is a consequence of the yeast multiplication, and the yeast have to be alive for alcohol to be produced. Pasteur published his seminal results in a preliminary paper in 1857 and in a final version in 1860, which was titled "Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique" (Pasteur 1857).

                                                                 In 1856, a man named Bigo sought Pasteur's help because he was having problems at his distillery, which produced alcohol from sugar beetroot fermentation. The contents of his fermentation containers were embittered, and instead of alcohol he was obtaining a substance similar to sour milk. Pasteur analyzed the chemical contents of the sour substance and found that it contained a substantial amount of lactic acid instead of alcohol. When he compared the sediments from different containers under the microscope, he noticed that large amounts of yeast were visible in samples from the containers in which alcoholic fermentation had occurred. In contrast, in the polluted containers, the ones containing lactic acid, he observed "much smaller cells than the yeast." Pasteur's finding showed that there are two types of fermentation: alcoholic and lactic acid. Alcoholic fermentation occurs by the action of yeast; lactic acid fermentation, by the action of bacteria.

TEA FACTS ---- --- -- THINGS YOU DIDN'T KNOW ABOUT TEA

Astrotea. * You can use tea leaves to read the future. Just leave a small amount of tea in the bottom of the cup along with some tea leaves, and after stirring the remains three times, the pattern you’re left with will tell you what’s in store. In Asia, readers of tea leaves are just as respected as astrologers.Bags. * Tea bags were invented in America in the early 1800s, and were initially used to hold samples of teas brought from India. Today, 96% of all cups of tea served around the world were made using teabags.
Camellia sinensis. * There are many different kinds of tea, but they are all derived from just one plant: Camellia sinensis. The color and variety of the tea (green, black, white, oolong) depends, however, on the way the leaves are treated.
Darjeeling. * It’s called the champagne of tea: a black tea, it is grown in the eponymous area of Indian Bengal. One of the world’s most highly-prized tea varieties, teas are often falsely sold as coming from this area: for every 400 tons of tea sold under this name every year, only 100 tons actually comes from Darjeeling.                                                                                            
Elevenses.  * At 11 o’clock in the morning, to stay alert, in England it’s common to take a break with a cup of tea and some cakes: Elevenses. Before dinner, however, you can take ‘high tea’: a kind of reinforced snack.
Food. * You can’t have a cup without something to go with it: from cookies and English cucumber sandwiches to seafood accompanied by green tea in Japan, by way of spicy Indian meat dishes, and all-chocolate desserts from Assam.                                                            

Gin. * Mix gin and cold tea, flavor with little lemon rind, and you’ll get a great summer cocktail. In the mid 1700s, in Great Britain, tea replaced gin as the drink of the masses, and became the nation’s favorite beverage.
Hot or cold. *  Perfect when drunk steaming hot, tea is also one of the most thirst-quenching summer drinks when drunk cold, perhaps with ice, and possibly some lemon, lime or leaves of mint to add flavor.
India. *  After tourism, the cultivation of tea is India’s second largest industry. And India tea is the variety most commonly drunk the world over, despite the fact that it originally came from China. 
Joan Cusack. * Can I get you anything? Coffee? Tea? Me?» is one of cinema’s best-known quotes. It’s the famously cheeky line uttered by Joan Cusack to Harrison Ford in the classic film Working Girl.
Kettle. *  You won’t find a kitchen in England without one: the kettle, used to boil the water for tea, can be either electric or heated up on the hob. 
Loose tea. *  Loose tea is, for connoisseurs, the best way to taste tea: the quality of the tea leaves, which are often whole, and not broken up as in tea bags, is often higher, and retains more of their original flavor.
Mosquitoes. *  Tea leaves are a natural means of keeping mosquitoes away. All you have to do is use slightly damp leaves to add the scent of tea to the areas you want to keep insect-free.
Not just for drinking. *  Here are five good reasons for not giving up tea, even if you don’t drink it - it helps to heal shaving cuts, eliminates bad odors when added to a foot bath, can be used to marinade meat, is a great fertilizer for roses, and is also good for cleaning floors.
Oolong. * Oolong tea, a Chinese and Taiwanese tea with a fruity aroma, is also often called Dragon’s Tea: these tea leaves, when put in teapot, often start to look like a dragon. The world’s most expensive tea is an oolong tea: it’s called Tieguanyin, and its leaves cost up to $3,000 per kilo.
Party. * The Tea Party is the American political movement which calls for less state intervention in key areas like the economy and healthcare. Its name harks back to the Boston Tea Party, an act of protest carried out in the 1700s when Americans rebelled against the British government, destroying cases of tea which had arrived from India.
Quotes. * «Women are like tea bags. They do not know how strong they are until they get into hot water.» - Eleanor Roosevelt.
Ritz Carlton of Hong Kong. *  This is where the world’s most expensive afternoon tea is drunk – you can spend up to $8,888 dollars here. You can taste the world’s best teas, finger food, fantastic cakes and enjoy the best view of the city.
Samovar. * In Russia, the water for tea is boiled using a samovar. They were initially heated using coal, but these days usually run on electricity. They’re traditional, common household items found in Russia, Iran and Turkey.
Theanine. * The stimulant found in tea leaves is theanine, an antioxidant whose equivalent in coffee is caffeine. Tea, however, contains less caffeine than coffee: around half the amount.
UK. * The London Tea Auction was an institution which lasted for 300 years. Tea was sold using the ‘by the candle’ system: bidding for lots went on until an inch of a candle had burnt away.

Vitamins. * Tea is a natural antioxidant, and rich in vitamins: it contains vitamins B2, B1 and B6. Tea, however, is also rich in potassium, manganese, folic acid and calcium.
Water. * Experts have always advised on the best kind of water for making tea. In early Chinese texts we can find suggestions that the best water should be taken from rivers and lakes.
X-rated. * Amongst the many thousands of qualities that tea can boast, it has relaxing effects that can help improve your sex life. In particular, Ashwagandha tea is regarded as a stimulant to virility.
Yin Zhen or Silver Needle. * This is the most highly prized of white teas. It comes from China, and takes its name from the leaves used to make it, which are harvested when they’re young and still unfurled, and look like needles.

Zillah. * The world’s oldest gas pump is still going strong, and can be found in Zillah, in Washington State. It’s known as the Teapot Dome Service Station, as it happens to look like a teapot.

High Spirirts...... Know How....????

                             ALCOHOL INTRODUCTION ____Alcohol is a mobile, volatile fluid obtained by fermentation of a sugar containingliquid. Its strength (concentration) can be further increased by distillation.Alcohol, in general, is a family of organic chemical compounds. Thus, there are variouskinds of alcohols in this alcohol family. It includes Methanol (Methyl alcohol), Ethanol(Ethyl Alcohol), Propanol (Propyl alcohol), Butanol (Butyl Alcohol) and so on. All thesealcohols are obtained on replacing one Hydrogen (-H) atom by one Hydro-oxide (-OH)atom in its parent chemical compound. For example: one Hydrogen atom in Methane(CH4) is replaced by one Hydroxide atom to form Methanol (CH 3OH), one Hydrogenatom in Ethane (C2H6) is replaced by one Hydroxide atom to form Ethanol (C 2H5OH) andso on.Methyl alcohol (methanol) and Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) are the main alcohols in thisfamily. Out of these two organic chemical compounds, Ethanol (C 2H5OH) is potable andif sensibly consumed, is a beneficial alcohol. It has a faint but pleasant ethereal smelland it is the alcohol that shall be dealt with. On the other hand, Methanol is a powerfullydangerous poison if drunk. Its importance is that it is widely used in industrial processes.

NOMENCLATURE____The name Alcohol is derived from the Arabic word al-kohl. Kohl is a black, very finestaining powder that is used cosmetically for staining the eyelids (and is particularly used by ladies). Later, the name was applied to highly refined chemical powders and essences and then to spirits produced by distillation and rectification and now to any alcohol (alcoholic beverage) in general.ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE ____An alcoholic beverage is any potable (meaning drinkable) liquid containing ethanol orethyl alcohol. In USA, Federal Government during the Prohibition time defined that it 1

2. may have as little as 0.5% to 95% alcohol by volume. However, social and economicfactors, so also the taxation laws determine what are alcoholic beverages. For example:Certain bitters and medicinal compounds contain as much as 40% alcohol; even thenthey are not considered as alcoholic beverages and are not taxed.HOW IS POTABLE ALCOHOL (ALCOHOLICBEVERAGE) OBTAINED?_________________________All alcohols or alcoholic beverages are obtained by a process called fermentation. It isconcentrated or increased in strength by a process called Distillation. Both theseprocesses are discussed below:FERMENTATIONFrench biologist Louis Pasteur (1822-95) explained scientifically the principle offermentation, which is basic to the making of all alcoholic beverages. When yeast isadded to any sugar containing liquid, it reacts with sugar of the liquid to formalcohol and carbon dioxide. This fundamental process is called fermentation. Ifthis liquid is not protected from air, it is later converted to vinegar.Thus, fermentation is the breaking down of organic substances (sugars particularlymaltose) by enzymes secreted by yeast cells into mainly ethyl alcohol and carbondioxide gas. This is an exothermic reaction i.e. heat is liberated during this reaction. Fermentable Sugars + Yeast Enzymes → Alcohol + Carbon Dioxide Gas↑ + HeatScientifically describing, the enzymes secreted by yeast cells react with one molecule ofsugar (maltose) to produce two molecules of Ethanol and two molecules of CarbonDioxide Gas. Heat is generated during this reaction.

C6H12O6 + Yeast Enzmyes → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2↑+ Heat EnergyCarbon dioxide gas is usually but not always allowed to escape. Here, the alcohol(ethanol)-a liquid remains behind in the original liquid, which is then called afermented alcoholic beverage. These fermented alcoholic beverages are preferablyrested, aged, matured and blended before being bottled for sale. Fermented alcoholic..

3. beverages have an alcoholic strength of generally 4% to 14% by volume. For example:Wines, Mead, Pulque, Cider, Perry, Beers etc.A point, which is very important, is that alcohol is obtained from ingredients containingsugar. For example: grape juice, apple juice, pear juice etc. But, it can also be obtainedfrom ingredients such as grain, cereals and potatoes, which have no sugar but have thepotential to form sugar i.e. these cereals have a lot of starch present in them. Once thestarch is converted into fermentable sugars, mainly maltose, yeast is introduced andfermentation begins.Another point that requires mention is that certain fermented alcoholic beverages likeBeer, Sake etc are brewed before they are fermented. i.e. the mixture of grist (mashedcereals) and hot water is brewed to extract flavour, taste and aroma before beingfermented. NAMES AND BASE INGREDIENTS OF SOME FERMENTED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES Table, sparkling, fortified and other wines - Grapes Cider - Apples Perry - Pears Mead - Honey Pulque - Blue Agave or Maguey NAMES AND BASE INGREDIENTS OF SOME BREWED AND FERMENTED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES Lagers, Ales and other beers - Grains Sake - RiceDISTILLATIONThe process of separating one or more liquids by heating a mixture of liquids iscalled distillation. It involves the sub-processes of evaporation and condensation.The principle of distillation is that ethyl alcohol vaporizes at a lower temperature (78.5° C) than water, which vaporizes at 100 °C. So, when any fermented liquid is heated in an 3

4. enclosed vessel called a still to a temperature of 78.5 °C, water remains in the still andalcohol vaporizes which is channeled off and later condensed to obtain a concentratedalcoholic liquid again. This concentrated alcoholic liquid obtained after distillation iscalled a spirit-a kind of distilled alcoholic beverage. This distilled alcoholic beverage(spirit) depending upon the method of distillation (whether pot still or patent still) maybe rested, matured, blended, and reduced in strength by adding de-ionized water andprobably given colour enhancement before being bottled for sale. For example: Gin,Vodka, Whisky etc. These fermented and distilled alcoholic beverages generally havean alcoholic strength ranging from 37.5% to 57.5% by volume. But, some distilledalcoholic beverages have an alcoholic strength as high as 75% by volume.Important points that are notable in this process are as follows:(i) The still is the apparataus, which allows the seperation of water and alcohol from afermented liquid to be carried out (thus, a fermented liquid is a must for distillation).Also, the quality of the final product depends a lot on the shape and size of this still.(ii) Water is constantly vaporizing to some extent so every distillation will contain water.(iii) The final product obtained after distillation also consists of Congeners. Congenersare minor amounts of aldehydes, ethers, esters, volatile acids, organic compounds andalso fusel oils (higher alcohols like propanol, butanol etc) which give the product itsdistinctive, individual character of taste, flavour and aroma. They come along with thevaporizing process or by the extraction from the residue. These are further enhanced asthe spirit ages in wood. For example: Aldehydes are produced from a combination ofalcohols and air, and are particularly important for the character of a spirit. Esters resultfrom a combination of acids and alcohol and form a volatile substance that contributesto the aroma of a spirit.There are two main methods of distillation by which distilled alcoholic beverages (spirits)may be obtained:(i) POT STILL: It originated in the middle ages and is associated with separate, slow andlow-temperature distillations. As a result, the end product contains a good proportion ofcongeners and spirits obtained by this method have to be matured for atleast two years bylaw. But, usually it is matured longer than that. The entire heavy, highly flavoursome spiritsare distilled by this method. For example: brandy, malt whisky, dark rums, tequila and fineCalvados etc.The pot still is shaped like a giant onion and consists of two parts: a still and a wormcondenser. The still is made of copper because it is a good conductor of heat and alsoresists the effects of acids, which are normally capable of dissolving metal. The copper wormcondenser is connected to the still by a copper pipe. The worm passes through a jacket offlowing cold water, which speeds up the condensation of the alcohol-rich vapours. The potstill is time consuming and costly to operate. It needs to be cooled, cleaned and refilled aftereach distillation, but it produces spirits of remarkable individuality, quality and flavour.

5. POT STILLWorking: The fermented liquid is placed in the still and slowly heated over a naked flame.When the temperature reaches 78.5°C the alcoholic vapours rise and pass through the wormto a condenser. Here the vapours are condensed back into a liquid containing about 30%alcohol. This is re-distilled. The first part of the distillate to emerge is known as the heads(foreshots) and contains a high proportion of methanol. This is put to one side. The centralportion (heart) of the distillation - the best part -- has an alcoholic strength of about 80% andis channeled into the spirit receiver and ultimately into maturing casks. The final part ofthe distillation, known as tails (feints or after-shots), is weak in alcohol and contains thenauseating fusel oils and other impurities. The heads and tails are sent back to be re-distilled and refined. The new spirit (distilled alcoholic beverage) may be reduced instrength by the addition of deionised water, which does not react with the chemicalelements of the spirit. It is then well matured before bottling and sending it for sale.(ii) PATENT STILL: The patent still or Coffey still is named after its inventor AeneasCoffey-a Dublin excise officer. It works on the principle of distillation by steam andproduces a continuous flow of high strength alcohol. It uses rectification to make theend product as pure and congener-free as possible. As a result, no maturing period isrequired by law and the resultant product may be sold immediately it has beenproduced. It is cheaper than the pot still to operate as it is lighter on fuel and does notrequire the labour-intensive tasks of emptying, cleaning and refilling. The patent still isassociated with all the light spirits such as vodka, gin, white and light rums, grainwhiskies etc. 5

6. PATENT STILLWorking: The patent still consists of two columns about 18 m high. The analyzerseparate the constituent liquid parts while the rectifier condenses the alcoholic vapours,raises the strength of and purifies the spirit. Each column is sub-divided horizontally intochambers by perforated copper plates, which have a drip pipe leading to the chamberunderneath. Both columns are preheated by steam and the fermented liquid (also calledwash) enters at the top of the rectifier through a pipe and gradually descends.By the time, the wash reaches the bottom of the rectifier through the pipe; it is almost atboiling point. It is then pumped into the analyser where it gradually makes its way 6

7. downwards through perforated plates and bubble caps. As it descends, it is met by acurrent of raw steam, which has been injected under pressure into the bottom of theanalyser. On contact, the steam boils the wash and produces alcoholic vapours that riseand are channelled by a pipe into the bottom of the rectifier. The spent wash is removedfrom the bottom of the analyser.Meanwhile inside the rectifier, the alcoholic vapours pass through a series of perforatedplates. As they rise they meet the cold wash being carried down the rectifier by thewash coil. Partial condensation takes place - the vapours getting cooler and the wash,on its way to the analyser, getting hotter. When the spirit vapours reach two-thirds ofthe way up in the rectifier, they hit a cold spiral plate or water frame and precipitate.The first liquid to emerge - the heads or foreshots - is removed and sent back to theanalyser because it is pungent and needs further refining. The comparative pure spiritthat follows is guided into a spirit receiver. The new spirit is then reduced in alcoholicstrength by deionised water and matured for a short time before being treatedaccording to style.NAMES AND BASE INGREDIENTS OF SOME DISTILLED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES (SPIRITS) Cognac, Armagnac & other brandies - Grapes or Wine Whisky - Grains or Beer Vodka, Kornbranntwein - Grains/Potatoes Light, golden & dark Rums - Molasses (Sugarcane) Arrack - Dates, Palm Sap Mezcal, Tequila - Blue Agave or Pulque Gin - Grains Aquavit - Grains, PotatoesNAMES AND BASE INGREDIENTS OF SOME DISTILLED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES FROM FRUITS OTHER THAN GRAPES (EAU DE VIE DES FRUITS) Calvados - Apples Slivovitz, Mirabelle, Quetsch - Plums Kirsch - Cherries Eau de Vie de Poire - Pears Eau de Vie de Fraise - Strawberries Eau de Vie de Framboise - Raspberries 7

8. CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES (STYLES) OF ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES_______________________The main purpose of classification of Alcoholic Beverages are two: (i) to provide thebase for accessing and collecting taxes by the government and (ii) to protect theconsumer by making them understand the differences between the products.The chart showing the classification and different styles of alcoholic beverages is givenhereby:It shows that ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES are basically classified into FERMENTEDALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES and DISTILLED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES dependingupon whether they are fermented or distilled.These FERMENTED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES are classified into WINES, MEAD,PULQUE, CIDER, PERRY, BEER, SAKE etc on the basis of base ingredients used.WINES are further categoried into TABLE, SPARKLING, FORTIFIED, AROMATISED,TONIC, VIN DOUX NATURELA, ORGANIC etc. on the basis of theirnature/characteristics. All these WINE TYPES can also be classified (i) on the basis oftheir colour into RED, PINK (ROSE) AND WHITE, (ii) on the basis of their body intoHEAVY BODIED, MEDIUM BODIED OR LIGHT BODIED (especially red wines) (iii) onthe basis of their degree of sweetness into DRY, MEDIUM DRY, MEDIUM SWEET,SWEET etc (especially white wines). (iv) on the basis of alcohol content into LOWALCOHOL WINES (max 1.2% by volume), DE-ALCOHOLISED WINES (max 0.5% byvolume) and ALCOHOL FREE OR NO ALCOHOL WINES (max 0.05% by volume).BEER is classified on the basis of type of fermentation (bottom or top) into mainlyLAGERS and ALES. However, there are other types like PORTER, PILSNER, STOUT,GUINNESS, BOCK, STEAM etc.The DISTILLED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES are classified into SPIRITS, LIQUEURS,BITTERS etc on the basis of their nature and characteristics. SPIRITS are furthercategorised into WHISKY, GIN, RUM, VODKA, TEQUILA, BRANDY, CALVADOS, EAUDE VIE DES FRUITS AND OTHERS depending upon the base ingredient used.Further, famous WHISKIES are of four main types depending upon the country of origin, base ingredient, method of manufacture etc: SCOTCH, IRISH, AMERICAN ANDCANADIAN. GIN styles include FRUIT GINS, PLYMOUTH GIN, LONDON DRY GIN,HOLLANDS GIN, MALT WINE etc. RUM styles are LIGHT RUM, GOLDEN RUM ANDDARK RUM. TEQUILA styles include WHITE and GOLDEN (ANEJO). BRANDY typesinclude COGNAC, ARMAGNAC AND OTHERS. EAU DE VIE DES FRUITS include EAU DE VIE DE POIRE, FRAISE, FRAMBOISE etc. LIQUEURS are further classified into GENERIC LIQUEURS and BRANDED LIQUEURS.

11. ALCOHOLIC STRENGTH_______The concentration of alcohol in an alcoholic beverage is called its alcoholic strength. Alcoholic strength of any alcoholic beverage is required to be measured so that the governments can tax them properly and consumers might come to know about it, forcing them to drink sensibly. Various methods are followed all over the world to determine the alcoholic strength of an alcoholic beverage. Traditional or Primitive methods were followed before the scientific methods were evolved. Both these kinds of various methods are listed here: PRIMITIVE METHODS: It includes two methods:(a) Gunpowder: To test alcoholic strength initially distillers mixed equal quantities of spirit and gunpowder and applied a flame to it. If the mixture failed to ignite, the spirit was too weak; if it exploded or burned too brightly, it was too strong, but if it burned evenly with a mild blue flame, it was proved suitable and safe to drink (potable).Hence, the word “proof”.(b) Clarke’s Float: In the seventeenth century, Clarke invented a weighted float. Whenthis float was dropped into a spirit, the depth to which it sank revealed the density of the liquor and the alcoholic strength could be calculated from this. It was then able to calibrate a particular strength as proof and any with a greater or lesser concentration of alcohol was over proof’ or under proof’ respectively. MODERN SCIENTIFIC METHODS: It includes four methods:(a) Sykes Hydrometer: In 1816, Sykes introduced Sykes Hydrometer. Sykesdetermined that 100° was proof and that pure alcohol was 175° (75° overproof). On thisscale, the figure for pure alcohol is I 3/4 times the figure accorded to proof spirit. In other words, 100° proof equals 57.1% alcohol and 42.9% water. The system also called British system became traditional throughout the United Kingdom where spirits weresold at a potable strength of 70° proof (30° underproof). So to convert the British proofinto percent by volume of alcohol, simply multiply the proof by four and divide by seven. 70 X 4 = 40% 7(b) Gay-Lussac System: Gay-Lussac (1778-1850) invented this system, which was adopted throughout mainland Europe. In Gay-Lussac or GL system 0° is the absence of 11

12. alcohol and 100° pure alcohol. Here, the alcoholic strength is measured at 15°C. Thus, degree equals percentage.© American System: The Americans introduced their own system that was reasonably logical. They decided that proof spirit was an exact balance of alcohol and water andthat pure alcohol is 200° Proof. Each degree of proof equals one-half percent of alcohol.So, a spirit marketed at 90° proof would contain 45% of alcohol by volume.(d) OIML Scale: The Organisation Internationale de Metrologie Legale (OIML)expresses alcoholic strength as a percentage by volume of alcohol (0% - 100%). It isvery similar to the Gay-Lussac system except that OIML measures strength at 20°C.Thus, Gay-Lussac system gives a slightly higher reading. The difference is almost negligible except when deciding excise duty on very large quantities of drink. Thissystem is followed now a days in the continent of Europe. APPROXIMATE ALCOHOLIC STRENGTHS__________TYPE ALCOHOL BY VOLUME Alcohol free - maximum 0.05%De-alcoholised - maximum 0.5%Low alcohol - maximum 1.2%Cider - 4 – 6% but ‘specials’ up to 8%Beer - Light: 3 – 6%, Strong: 8 – 10%Table Wines - 8 – 15%, usually 10 – 13%Sparkling Wines - 10 – 13%Fortified Wines - 16 – 22%Aromatised Wines - 14 – 20%Vin doux Naturel - 15 – 18%Spirits - usually 37.5 – 45%, some upto 57.5%Liqueurs - 17 – 55%BENEFITS OF ALCOHOL_________________________Some of the benefits of alcohol are as follows:(i) Alcohol is not a direct cause of any disease nor will it cure any disease. But, it is used medicinally for treatment of certain physical conditions. It is world’s second oldest disinfectant.(ii) Alcohol is good when drunk in moderation. It is a source of nutrition and energy as it creates heat. 12

13. (iii) As a food it is an appetizer, an accompaniment, an enhancer of flavors and taste, aids digestion and sometimes used as correctives as well.(iv) It accentuates sensory perception, sharpens memory and gives some protection tothe heart and blood vessels by raising the level of good cholesterol.(v) It depresses centers of anxiety, relieving tension and stress. Sometimes, it exhilarates the spirit.

ABUSES OF ALCOHOL__Alcohol must be treated very seriously and with respect. It is only a problem to those who abuse it. Long time heavy drinking may lead to:(i) serious illness including liver cirrhosis, hastening of age and deterioration of nervous system.(ii) situations where it becomes an impediment in person’s speed and quality of performance,(iii) the person becoming a danger to themselves and others; especially when driving or operating machines.(iv) personality changes in extreme cases. They become extremely unpleasant and unreliable.(v) a person becoming unfit for work and a cause for embarrassment and burden totheir families and friends. SAFE & SENSIBLE DRINKING_____________________Ingested alcohol is readily and rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. The liver burns  up almost all this alcohol. Whatever is remaining behind is discharged via urine or perspiration. The liver burns up only one unit of alcohol per hour and as it being a living organ cannot cope up with too much alcohol. To avoid any damage to health, the alcoholic intake should be limited to 21 units a week for men and 14 units a week for women. Care should be taken that this consumption should be spread throughout the week. Usually,1 unit = 0.5 pint (28 cl) of ordinary beer or lager 1 glass (12.5cl) of wine 1 measure (2.5cl) of spirit 1 glass (5cl) of sherry 1 measure (5cl) of vermouth or other aperitif 13

14. The limit for drivers is generally 80 mg of alcohol in 100 ml of blood. The number of units required to reach this level varies between individuals but it can be as little as 3units. After consumption, alcohol remains in the bloodstream for up to 18 hours THINK IT OVER__!!  !! !!